|
|
Creative
Arts of India
|
|
The
history of Indian crafts is indeed very old,
going back to almost 5000 years from present.
The first examples of Indian crafts can be found
from the ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization
(3000 B.C – 1700 B.C). The craft tradition
in India has revolved around religious beliefs,
everyday needs of the common people, as well
as the special needs of the patrons and royalty;
there was the influence of foreign and domestic
trade too.
These craft traditions have withstood the ravages
of time and numerous foreign invasions and continue
to flourish till date, owing to the assimilative
nature of Indian culture and broadmindedness
of the craftsmen to accept and use new ideas.
|
|
Metal
Work
It is believed that originally metal
was derived from meteorites, which were considered
sacred; therefore very special objects were
made from it. However, it was gradually discovered
that metals could be obtained from below the
earth’s surface. Working with metals appeared
to be veiled in mystery and connected with the
occult; the smelting and shaping of metal was
a secret ritual and the blacksmith's forge was
considered sacred. The blacksmith was seen as
a visionary, who could fashion artistic as well
as useful objects out of the most unlikely and
inflexible of substances. Later, metals were
associated with the planets and it was believed
that their use could accentuate or minimize
planetary influences.
This mystique was transformed
into the science of alchemy. As a result of
their ability of working with metals, the ancient
civilizations gave the master workers predominance
over those who lacked these skills.
Over the years, the availability
of metals grew and vessels of diverse shapes
were developed for different purposes; many
of the shapes being derived from nature. The
very word patram, for vessels, is derived from
the Sanskrit word, patra, the leaf.
Also, dried and cleaned shells of gourds have
been and are still used by many tribal communities
for carrying water. This shape has been imparted
to various metal containers.
The earliest metal vessels
were large water-pitchers made of brass or copper
with a circular mouth. Its narrow neck and rounded
contours, ending in a steady base, rendered
s it a perfect form, convenient for daily use.
Even today, the shapes of vessels
vary from one area to another. For instance
the north Indian water-pitcher has a flat base
and rises at an angle. The Rajasthani pitcher,
however, is rounded and has a very small mouth
and narrow neck, to prevent the water from spilling
over, as well as to control the flow of water
while pouring. The miniscule water-pitcher,
the lota, is used for a number of tasks
throughout the day. The curving outward lip,
the narrow neck and the rounded container with
its steady base, makes it one of the most functional
and satisfying utility items.
A variety of ritual vessels
were also evolved over the years, which in due
course, achieved a perfection of form. A metal
is used with sensitivity, not only to its burnished
form, but also to its sound. The temple bells
of India are celebrated for the depth and purity
of their tone and also for their elegant architectonic
forms. Since bell-metal is considered to be
the purest of all materials, it is not only
used for ritual purposes, but also for utensils
of everyday use. Unlike the people of Europe
and the Middle-East, the Indians did not traditionally
use glass and porcelain. Naturally therefore,
all household requirements – tumblers,
glasses, cups, plates, serving dishes and storage
containers used to be made of metal.
Down the centuries, innumerable
metal techniques were mastered by the Indians.
The most important of these are the technique
of creating a shape by joining different parts
of the vessel. This is done in a subtle manner
by creating a ridge, which hides the soldering.
This method emphasizes the central portion of
the wadhi, the butter dispenser, or the sloping
neck of the ghara, the pitcher.
Indian craftsman have been
(and still are) experts at creating shapes out
of sheet metal. The most complicated shapes
are formed by hammer strokes. Water-vessels,
lotas, large serving plates, thalis,
and table-tops, besides dowry boxes from Gujarat,
are traditionally made by alternately heating
and hammering the metal. A number of these objects
retain the impression of the hammer strokes,
which accentuate their forms and textures.
|
Lota- the ubiquitous water pot
Ghara- the water pot |
The objects of everyday use are generally
not engraved, save decorative pieces and the
items used for rituals or ceremonial occasions.
The engraving is done by master craftsmen
who are capable of reproducing a variety of
patterns taken from everyday life. A number
of ritual objects, commonplace in south India
carry symbols of Vishnu or depict the Dasavtars,
the ten incarnations of Vishnu. The ritual
vessels used by the worshippers of Shiva carry
the lingam (the phallic symbol) or
Nandi the bull .
Many others utensils and vessels are adorned
with designs and motifs taken from mythology
as well as everyday life. These include a
long-tailed peacock, the vahana (vehicle or
mount) of Kartikeya, Rati, the goddess of
love, hamsa, the mythical swan, associated
with Saraswati, the goddess of learning.
The art of metal work was linked with the
political situation of the country. The concept
of state was ushered in during the age of
the Mauryan Empire, in the 3rd century B.C.
Numerous sculptures from Bharhut and Sanchi
(Madhya Pradesh), Mathura (Uttar Pradesh),
Amravati (Andhra Pradesh), Vaishali (Bihar),
show female figures adorned with an array
of jewellery. The amazing, rust proof iron
pillars of Vaishali (Bihar) and Delhi, created
during the time of Emperor Ashoka, are indeed
marvels in the field of metallurgy.
|
Bronze images of the
Chola period |
|
|
Various
techniques
Metal casting
The Harappan figure of a female dancer, with
her carefree stance, is one of the first metal
sculptures discovered in India. Even 5,000 years
ago, Indian craftsmen had mastered the art of
casting. The large image of the Buddha at Sultanganj
is possibly the largest surviving metal work
of ancient time - a tribute to the skill of
Indian craftsmen in melting and casting metal.
Images and idols of numerous
deities, (made for the purpose of worship) all
over India were earlier made from an alloy known
as panchadhatu (five metals). The metals
were mixed in the proportion required for the
image to be prepared. The basic form was first
prepared out of wax, enclosed in clay moulds
and fired. In the process of firing, the clay
mould was created, the wax melted, leaving a
hollow inside the mould. Hot molten metal would
be poured into the mould. After the metal cooled,
the mould was broken open and the basic solid
cast image emerged. Bronze casting is pursued
in Madurai (Tamil Nadu), Mysore, Bangalore (Karnataka),
Kerala, Mathura and Moradabad (Uttar Pradesh),
Vishnupur (West Bengal), Palitana (Gujarat)
besides Balasore and Puri in Orissa. However,
each region has its own distinctive style. For
instance, Palitana is famous for casting Jain
images, while the hilly areas of the country
mould and cast images of the mother goddess
(Devi, shakti) or the mohras
(faces, visages) of various deities. The most
popular theme in Benaras is the divine couple
Radha and Krishna among others deities. The
famous brass and copper castings of Moradabad
have become a household name across the country
and is one of the major export items today.
The focus is on decorative and aesthetically
pleasing items.
|
|
The
tribal style of metal castings is prepared in
Bihar, Bengal, Bastar district of Chhattisgarh,
Kerala and Orissa by a community of itinerant
metal workers. The images include human beings,
animals, birds, deities, besides objects used
in the daily lives. The basic structure is first
prepared in clay and then covered with threads
of wax, which are either smoothed over to give
a flat surface, or retained in their original
state to produce a wire-like effect. Details
of the finer features and decorative designs
are then worked with the help of thin threads
of wax. The finished wax model is then covered
with a thin layer of fine clay, followed by
yet another coat of clay mixed with straw. The
clay-covered piece is then fired, so that the
wax covering melts and gets burnt, thus creating
a gap between the inner core and the outer mould.
After this, the hot molten metal is poured and
the final shape emerges after the mould is broken
open. An acid bath cleans the metal and gives
it a soft burnished effect.
Koftgari |
Tribal metal images from
Bastar (Chhattisgarh) |
This is an ancient art in which one metal is
encrusted onto another either in the form of
wires or as small-shaped metal pieces. Koftgari
was originally done with silver and gold wire
on iron or steel meant for swords, daggers,
and even guns. Today this art exists in Kerala,
where complicated designs in silver wire are
inlaid on iron metal sheets.
|
|
Bidri
This art form is based on the technique of damascening.
This involves inlaying gold and silver into
grooves gouged out of a metal surface, often
used for making the hilts of swords and daggers.
The technique originated with Muslim artists
of the Near East and was later adapted by Italian
and Spanish craftsmen during the 15th
century, from whom it spread to the rest of
Europe. The art gets its name from the place
of its origin in Bidar, near Mysore in the southern
state of Karnataka, though it is also practiced
at Lucknow (Uttar Pradesh) besides Purnea and
Murshidabad in West Bengal.
|
Bidri ware |
Tanjore
plate work
Originally used for making ritual objects, this
also involves the process of damascening. Here
the basic shape is made out of copper, which
is considered an auspicious metal and is used
for ritual purposes. Silver medallions carrying
repoussee designs of gods and goddesses and
their vahanas (mounts) are attached
to the surface. Brass decorative rosettes are
also sometime attached for accentuating the
contrast of color and textures. A number of
traditional objects are made by using this method
– large wall plates, chembu (a
broad-rimmed storage vessel made of brass),
the lota, kalash (pitcher),
panchapatra (a small container used
for storing holy water during rituals) , bowls
and cigarette boxes.
|
A brass chembu |
Enamelling
This is largely carried out in the cities of
Jaipur, Delhi, Lucknow and Moradabad. Here,
a metal is engraved so as to provide depressions
in which different colors of lac are heated
and fixed to create a surface of variegated
colors. In certain cases, the surface is filled
with glazes and the pot is fired. When this
technique is employed, the colours become lasting.
|
A silver panchapatra |
Repousse
work
This method involves embossing a metal sheet
by punching and hammering a design from the
back, and then polishing it up in front with
a chasing hammer, producing a three-dimensional
bas-relief surface.This technique is used for
making of images used for worship and decorative
panels depicting mythological scenes. Tiruchirapally,
Madurai, Tanjore and Chennai in the south, Varanasi
in the north besides Mumbai, Bhuj and north
Gujarat, specialize in this type of work.
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
